There is limited empirical research on students’ experiences in the Haitian higher education system, and even fewer that examined university-based career counselling and the career trajectory of university graduates in Haiti.
The purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions of the higher education experiences and career development of university students and graduates in Haiti.
This study emerged from a larger qualitative case study conducted in 2013 on HigherEdOrg (pseudonym) – a higher education-centred organisation in Haiti – whose services for university students and organisation alumni include career counselling. Data collection included semi-structured and focus group interviews, participant observation and document analysis.
Data analysis revealed two overarching themes: challenges to a university-to-career pipeline in Haiti and multi-pronged career guidance. A combination of country-level opportunity constraints and university-specific academic structures contributed to higher education and career challenges for emerging adults in Haiti. Conversely, these university students and graduates affiliated with HigherEdOr, found the comprehensive support provided alleviated those difficulties. Implications include the possibility of a new model of Haitian higher education that integrates career counselling as a new area of focus.
Although emerging adults in Haiti experience considerable challenges in their higher education and career development experiences, the findings revealed a pipeline between higher education attainment and positive career outcomes for those affiliated with HigherEdOrg. Recommendation for future research includes analysis of the career guidance offered to university students in Haiti, which will inform the design of targeted and relevant research projects to address this understudied issue.
There are positive outcomes associated with educational attainment, with increased schooling resulting in benefits to individuals and society (Akinyemi & Ofem,
Students choose to pursue higher education for a number of reasons: opportunities for financial security, a good quality of life and life-long learning are a few to mention (Chamorro-Premuzic & Frankiewicz,
The purpose of this study was to examine the higher education experiences and career training of university students and graduates in Haiti. This study is drawn from a larger case study conducted of HigherEdOrg (pseudonym), a higher education-centred non-governmental organisation (NGO) responding to university access and persistence in Haiti (Vital,
The researcher’s visit to Haiti provided an opportunity to interview both students and alumni of HigherEdOrg, who were also students and graduates of the Haitian university system at the time of this research. Together, this group of HigherEdOrg participants were able to highlight the career counselling they were receiving at the time of the research and speak about the outcomes of the career counselling received as current university graduates working in the local job market. As the terms ‘emerging adults’ and ‘emerging adulthood’ describe the human development that occurs between the ages of 18 and 25 (Arnett,
In his seminal work, Arnett (
Juarez and Gayet (
Job training, preparation, education or development can occur in various formats. Broadly, career counselling is provided to individuals ‘to make educational, training and occupational choices and to manage their careers’ and the services available may be offered ‘in schools, in universities and colleges, in public employment services, in companies, and in the voluntary and private sectors’ (Watts & Fretwell,
Counselling services programmes may have various components, including individual or group training that is in-person or online, specific career information and advice, opportunities for self-assessment, job preparation including interviews and print work, and the facilitation of apprenticeships or internships (Watts & Fretwell,
Chinese theories and strategies for career guidance and counselling should be created, with due reference to Chinese society’s characteristics, practical problems … job market, employment system, educational philosophy and the social value system. (p. 207)
Taken, all together, emerging adults in developing countries often experience economic and social inequality, and less than favourable job options. Yet, comprehensive career guidance and counselling that is coupled with higher education attainment may lead towards positive career preparation and more optimal outcomes.
This brief review of emerging adulthood and career counselling in low-income countries was offered to highlight the uniqueness of career counselling in the higher education environment in Haiti. Higher education does not always lead to employment, or employment that aligns with skills and academic training, and this is true for Haiti. In a global context, it is understood that there is a positive connection between higher education graduation and career attainment, broadly. However, although data collection for this study occurred in 2013, there does not seem to exist any empirical research that describes a university-to-career pipeline in Haiti. More specifically, career counselling and the patterns for people who attend and graduate from university are understudied in the Haitian context. This scholarly work is focused on the higher education and career development experiences of emerging adults in Haiti. The following section offers a contextual background of Haiti, including the higher education and career experiences of university students in Haiti.
Haiti’s history is marked by periods of political and economic instability and catastrophic natural disasters, including its devastating 2010 earthquake and Hurricane Matthew in 2016, described as the ‘fiercest Caribbean storm in nearly a decade’ (Brice & Marsh,
Given the challenging educational realities in Haiti, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID,
HigherEdOrg is a higher education-centred NGO located in Port-au-Prince, Haiti. The organisation envisions all Haitians having access to quality education and the ability to contribute to local society. It is an independent organisation and is not a function of the Ministry of Education, or any institution of higher education in Haiti. HigherEdOrg has staff located in Haiti and New York, the United States of America. The Haiti-based staff members work directly with the programme participants. The staff members in Haiti strive to create and maintain relationships with local universities and the Ministry of Education. They also attempt to develop connections with companies in Haiti and academic programmes outside of Haiti for the purposes of generating internships and educational enrichment opportunities for its students. The staff members in New York primarily work on development and fundraising for the organisation.
The NGO was founded in 1997 and its aim is to provide scholarships to talented young Haitians who do not have the financial means to access higher education studies. HigherEdOrg values gender development and sustainable practices. It operationalises these values by reserving 40% of the seats for women in each new class, and by having a staff that is comprised by a majority of women, who are also represented in leadership positions. Initially it was supporting one university student, and presently supports approximately 130 students a year who are in various levels of study (first through fifth year). In addition, HigherEdOrg has more than 30 alumni who have access to the career-related services and resources of the organisation. For the purposes of the scholarships it provides, HigherEdOrg recruits high achieving students demonstrating the most financial need. Once admitted, HigherEdOrg students must attend universities recognised by the
The HigherEdOrg scholarship provided to its scholars is comprehensive. Acceptance into the programme includes full university tuition, textbooks and supplies, access to a computer lab with Internet access, an onsite library, academic advising and study abroad opportunities in the United States of America. HigherEdOrg scholars also attend three organisation-designed enrichment courses: 2 years in computer literacy, 4 years of English as the second language and 4 years of leadership courses that have a social justice orientation. Students are also required to participate in extra-curricular activities that include a speaker series, field trips and retreats. HigherEdOrg also offers students counselling support. The scholarship also provides housing in a HigherEdOrg residence and a monthly living stipend. Students in their final year at university are assigned a thesis advisor and receive national exam preparation support. HigherEdOrg students and alumni receive career guidance, including workshops with guest industry and alumni guest speakers, cover letter and curriculum vitae reviews for future professional and academic opportunities domestically and abroad, and internship opportunities with local and international organisations, which is managed by the Career and Alumni Services Manager.
HigherEdOrg statistics.
How HigherEdOrg is changing the stats | Haiti | HigherEdOrg |
---|---|---|
Students on Dean’s list (%) | 8 | 40 |
University graduation rate (at the time of the study) (%) | 40 | 80 |
University graduates working in the country (%) | 16 | 80 |
Employment rate (%) | 50 | 90 |
Average annual salary ($) | 820 | 14 900 |
This study is framed by the work of Holman (
Holman (
Every pupil should have access to good quality information about future study options and labour market opportunities. They will need the support of an informed adviser to make best use of available information. (p. 7)
Every pupil should have multiple opportunities to learn from employers about work, employment and the skills that are valued in the workplace. This can be through a range of enrichment activities including visiting speakers, mentoring and enterprise schemes. (p. 7)
All pupils should understand the full range of learning opportunities that are available to them. This includes both academic and vocational routes and learning in schools, colleges, universities and in the workplace. (p. 7)
At first glance, it may seem counter-intuitive to frame this study on a conceptual framework based on country contexts vastly different from Haiti and its low-income country status. However, Holman’s (
This was a qualitative case study of a higher education-centred organisation in Haiti, HigherEdOrg (pseudonym). Stake (
The case study of HigherEdOrg was conducted in Port-au-Prince, the capital of Haiti. With regard to participant recruitment, after this study was conceptualised, the New York-based founder and executive director of HigherEdOrg was contacted to learn if the organisation could serve as the site and focus of the research. After receiving approval, participant recruitment material written in French was sent to the Haiti-based Associate Director of HigherEdOrg to forward onto organisation students, alumni and staff. The email included information about the study, participant requirements and my expected arrival and duration in Haiti. Potential participants were given the option of pre-scheduling their interview or confirming an appointment with me after I arrived in Haiti. Snowball sampling (Patton,
The participants reflected in this study on higher education experiences and career development in Haiti included HigherEdOrg students (1), HigherEdOrg alumni (2) and HigherEdOrg staff (7). In an attempt to gain a holistic understanding of career preparation and counselling approaches in Haiti, interviews with HigherEdOrg staff (one of whom was also a programme alumni), an administrator from the Haitian Ministry of Education and the Associate Director for the Interuniversity Institute for Research and Development (INURED) provided the contextual background to the higher education experiences and career development of emerging adults in Haiti. According to its website, INURED’s (
This study emerged from a larger qualitative case study conducted in 2013 on HigherEdOrg that focused on university access and persistence in the Haitian higher education system. Additional analysis of the data collected revealed findings related to higher education experiences and career counselling that together reflected the career development experienced by university students and graduates affiliated with HigherEdOrg themes specific to this study. I utilised a multi-method approach, including semi-structured and focus group interviews, observation and document analysis to collect the data. All interviews occurred face-to-face with participants and lasted for between 15 min and 60 min. Semi-structured interviews of HigherEdOrg stakeholders (students, alumni and staff) and focus group interviews of teaching staff occurred in various locations, including one in the student residences located in the capital provided by the organisation, in their staff offices and in the courtyard of the HigherEdOrg centre. Semi-structured interviews of the INURED AD occurred at the INURED office building and the interview with the Ministry of Education administrator occurred at a café in the capital. Reflexive memos (Glesne,
Observation was another method of data collection. I resided in a HigherEdOrg student residence during my month-long research visit in Haiti. I observed student interactions, study habits and engagement with student staff, and we had informal discussions regarding their HigherEdOrg experiences. I also observed the dynamics at the HigherEdOrg centre, including those between students, students and staff, staff and staff, staff with external visitors, staff meetings, student and staff meetings and the annual student graduation. The data collected from my observation allowed me to ‘use my senses, especially looking and listening in a systematic and meaningful way’ (McKechnie,
My final data collection method was document review. In total, I reviewed 110 pages of the organisation’s documents, including its organisational chart, student handbook, monthly reports, information management system guide, student profiles, summary of student needs, advisory guide, and applications for admission and academic scholarship forms. The organisation’s website was also a source of relevant data. Analysing the organisation’s documents provided background information and meaning to the interviews I conducted and dynamics that I observed (Glesne,
I used several methods of testing to rule out validity threat. The first test included respondent validation and member checking. Respondent validations included ‘systematically soliciting feedback about your data and conclusions from the people you are studying’ (Maxwell,
As I conceptualised my study research in Haiti, it was important that I reflect on any bias I would bring to this research project (Maxwell,
This study was approved by and granted exempt status from the Michigan State University Institutional Review Board (IRB# x13-485e Category: Exempt 1.2) and informed consent was obtained from all the participants. The case study was conducted on an entity outside of any formal Ministry of Education or higher education institution purview. As such, a Haiti-based IRB application was not submitted or requested. However, an explanation of the study was submitted to HigherEdOrg and permission to conduct the study was obtained from the organisation’s executive director.
Analysis of the data from the larger case study revealed findings related to perceptions of higher education training and career prospects for university students and graduates in Haiti, and the related implications on their career development and expectations. Findings are organised by two overarching themes: challenges to a university-to-career pipeline in Haiti and multi-pronged career guidance. Together, these themes highlight the necessity of addressing the combination of experiences of emerging adults in Haiti as they relate to their higher education attainment, career development and employment opportunities in Haiti.
The case study participants discussed a range of higher education and career prospect challenges experienced by university students and graduates in Haiti. The challenges conveyed are categorised by the larger Haiti country context, university-specific experiences, and what participants believed to be nepotism and neo-colonial practices embedded in the higher education and career structures in Haiti. Collectively, these challenges describe a broken university-to-career pipeline experienced by emerging adults in Haiti.
When discussing the experiences of university students in Haiti, Olivia Jean reconceptualised the notion of brain drain broadly as a general lack of opportunity, and explained:
‘For me, brain drain is not just for people who leave the country only. I think that when a person is in a place that he can’t develop, even if he is in the country, but he doesn’t, his heart wants … he doesn’t find the opportunity, or he is doing something else that he does not want to do, he is just doing it because, he makes a way but his brain is not utilized, that means that he is not being utilized the way that he should, that is also a problem.’ (Olivia Jean, student, HigherEdOrg)
The lack of a financial aid system creates barriers to university access for students, impeding their opportunities for higher education attainment. The Ministry of Education administrator noted the financial challenges that were barriers for students wanting to pursue higher education in Haiti:
‘There is a lot of effort for students to get scholarships in the country. That means that right now in the country, there is a lot of demand. At the same time, the State University in the country of Haiti almost cannot respond to the demand of all of the students who want to enter the university. Thus, this provides an opportunity for the private sector to [
From the perspective of staff members working at HigherEdOrg, Margreth Mathieu discussed the complexities surrounding pursuing a university degree in Haiti and described the following challenge:
‘Entering a university is not just entering a university. Even if he is a State University student, coming from
For those students who find an opportunity to enter a university in Haiti, they experience challenges to their persistence. Many of the participants described various university academic structures that made it difficult for students to graduate. They conveyed that although students were motivated in their disciplinary areas of study, they often felt discouraged because the academic experience disrupted their matriculation and hopes for degree attainment, and consequently their future employment. Farah Paul provided a nuanced account of the teaching offered at the university level in Haiti and its implications for potential employers:
‘It’s a major issue because you teach the person how to read and write. You teach them how to make subtractions and multiplications and stuff and then what? How is that person going to become the professional that he is? … Universities, there’s not a lot of them with good quality … how do you assess the work that they are doing? Same textbooks that [
An additional academic-related challenge described by participants was the university thesis requirement. Once students addressed barriers to access and navigated various challenges to their university persistence, they were faced with a thesis requirement that must be completed prior to being awarded their baccalaureate degree. The INURED Associate Director discussed this further:
‘Although all students are required to complete this component of their baccalaureate degree, based on participant responses, it appeared that there were not enough faculty members to guide students to do so. So, the students are going into the systems and they are not finishing and most of them are not finishing them not because they are not passing their classes. Most of them are not finishing because they can’t pass their thesis….’ (name not disclosed, associate director, INURED)
Other participants explained that often students arrive to the thesis component of their post-secondary experiences without ever having enrolled in a research course, being taught about how to conduct a research or analyse data, and not understanding how to develop a line of inquiry, let alone conduct a review of the literature. The thesis requirement was seen as a barrier because of the lack of training and preparation to develop a thesis and because a clear indication of how the thesis requirement related to their career aspirations had not been articulated by the faculty.
An additional challenge described by participants included ones that they believed university students had no control over, which contributed to their sense of defeat. HigherEdOrg students, alumni and staff discussed the discouraging reality that the Haitian university degree was not seen as valuable in Haitian contexts. Furthermore, they explained that local entities and even Haiti-based international organisations seemed to value degrees earned outside of the country. Participants noted that any foreign academic experience, even if it was short term, provided an edge for the university graduate on the local job market. Olivia Jean captured this sentiment:
‘The first thing that I can say, because like I said before, our education does not have international value. We could get some recognition if there is a school that is affiliated with a school outside. That can give us an opportunity to continue with school. But for us to have an international value, that means more than just getting an education. If we are in Haiti only, you will always have in mind if you want a professional, international … do your master’s another place, you will not want to do your master’s here. If you have an opportunity, a person on your side, you go.’ (Olivia Jean, student, HigherEdOrg)
The final challenge discussed by participants was broadly perceived to be corruption embedded in the employment sector in Haiti. This was discussed by nearly every HigherEdOrg participant. Guy Andrew, the English as a Second Language (ESL) and Leadership Instructor for HigherEdOrg, highlighted that ‘there’s a huge, huge amount of nepotism in Haiti. And a lot of people get jobs just through family and a lot of people, they are not qualified for.’ Conversely, HigherEdOrg Associate Director described the neo-colonial practices that kept Haitian nationals out of the job sector all together. The Associate Director underscored:
‘It’s like, how bizarre, how that in Haiti, this extremely impoverished country, how, with an unemployment rate of like 90%, is importing middle management and at the same time, we are exporting the educated Haitian, like that’s just stupid. It just doesn’t make any sense.’ (name not disclosed, associate director, HigherEdOrg)
Emerging adults in Haiti experience considerable challenges to both their higher education experiences and career expectations. Because of country-level opportunity constraints and university-specific academic structures participants explained that post-secondary students face barriers to their access and persistence in university in the country. Furthermore, university graduates must contend with what has been perceived to be a corruptive employment environment, which has implications for their career trajectory in Haiti.
As noted previously, this study is framed by Holman (
HigherEdOrg Career and Alumni Services Manager Farah Paul provided an in-depth understanding of services provided to current students and alumni of the programme. During her interview she discussed the overall career services she provided, the workshops offered and the support provided for post-graduation. When discussing the intent of the Career Services programme, she explained:
‘Our first focus is to place the students. I want them to have this professional experience. It doesn’t matter if it’s Haitian field, a Haitian organization, or a foreign organization. I really look for the opportunities that can provide them with you know with an internship in their own field. So, this year we’ve made a lot of progress regarding this specific aspect placing the student in the field that is of interest to him.’ (Farah Paul, career and alumni services manager, HigherEdOrg)
In her discussion, Farah explained that offering a
‘A lot of them [
When discussing the alumni support component of her role, Farah explained that older alumni were not aware of her position and that she was available to provide them with support long after they graduated. Although it took some time for her to reach the alumni, she explained that at that point she had developed a good network of programme graduates. The alumni had begun to seek her out for support in their post-graduate endeavours, sometimes for new professional positions or for additional academic pursuits.
Farah alluded to the challenges of the local job market in Haiti. She described:
‘[
Farah highlighted an issue that many of the case study participants discussed – namely, despite earning university degrees and having access to the comprehensive range of services provided by HigherEdOrg, programme alumni must still contend with the job market realities in Haiti, which some described as dire and incompatible with the degrees they earned.
The three required enrichment courses were also discussed by HigherEdOrg participants. When prompted, the alumni explained that the enrichment courses were not in existence when they were students of the programme. Most programme students welcomed the enrichment courses as a function of their scholarship because they believed the courses prepared them for future employment and potential academic opportunities in other countries, including the United States of America and Canada. However, some of the programme students found the course load overwhelming given the full academic load they were concurrently engaged in at their respective universities. Course staff members discussed the aim of the courses and why they believed they were necessary. Each of the course managers shared their insights.
HigherEdOrg Computer Science Assistant Manager Viola Persine explained that unlike experiences in the United States of America, many of the students were engaging in basic computer skills for the first time after becoming programme scholars. She described the support her unit provided:
‘I help the students troubleshoot. We do with them like, what is a computer, what is in a computer. This is something that you start small so that they can have abilities with it. There are some who do not know how to send an email. We show them how to do an excel document, create a formula … then we show them access … how to save a file.’ (Viola Persine, computer science assistant manager, HigherEdOrg)
Program scholars also participated in the leadership course. Embedded in the leadership course is a social justice ideal that speaks about HigherEdOrg’s mission to create a more just society. HigherEdOrg Leadership Programme Manager Marie Belizaire discussed the benefits of the course further:
‘I really do think that the transformation is happening, and the students feel really empowered, really good, and have the tools and skills and knowledge of how to use their competencies to give back to their community. And [
HigherEdOrg ESL Programme Manager Myrtho Izikyel discussed the ESL enrichment course. In her discussion, Myrtho alluded to the ‘neo-colonial practices’ mentioned earlier by HigherEdOrg Associate Director who believed that these practices kept Haitian nationals out of the job sector altogether. Myrtho explained the role of the ESL instructors:
‘So, we are helping the students by giving them more tools to be more successful in whatever professions they have. Now after the 2010 earthquake, January 12, I think that English has become even more important in the sense now you’ve got all of these other international actors, NGOs and we don’t necessarily want to be encouraging to work for NGOs, because it’s not very sustainable. But at the same time, they need the tools to navigate those systems because of their work in the private sector. Most likely they are going to have some sort of interaction with these nongovernmental organizations.’ (Myrtho Izikyel, ESL programme manager, HigherEdOrg)
Finally, ‘financial support’ as a sub-theme provides an opportunity to expand the
‘[
Ernest’s reflections speak about the lack of opportunity discussed earlier by HigherEdOrg student Olivia Jean, who conveyed it as an internal brain drain. Margreth Mathieu also discussed the benefits of the full scholarship offered to accepted students. She said:
‘[
Both alumni underscored the economic challenges experienced by post-secondary students in Haiti. They also conveyed the difficulty of attending university without bursaries or other forms of financial aid made available to prospective students. Given the extent of unemployment in Haiti, and the low average salary of the population, the scholarship provided by HigherEdOrg is undeniably invaluable for the percentage of overall university students who are accepted to the programme. Additionally, as all prospective HigherEdOrg students must demonstrate their financial need in order to receive the full scholarship to attend a university in Haiti, the funding awarded is a step prior to them achieving Benchmark 6 ‘encounters with further and higher education’ (Holman,
Despite the extent and nature of university and career challenges described by case study participants, those participants affiliated with HigherEdOrg believed that the comprehensive range of support and interventions offered by the organisation worked to alleviate the difficulties surrounding higher education and career expectations. The full scholarship and all it entailed helped to mitigate issues related to university access and persistence. The career and alumni services helped participants to develop skills required for the job market. The enrichment courses deepened student competencies and fostered their career development for the local job market.
This study examined the higher education and career development experiences of emerging adults in Haiti, who in the context of this study are university students and graduates. The analysis of the data collected highlighted the challenges experienced by this group, and the strategies provided by HigherEdOrg to mitigate those career-related challenges. Findings from the analysis conducted revealed two overarching themes: challenges to a university-to-career pipeline in Haiti and multi-pronged career guidance. They are discussed below as they relate to previous research.
The study participants affiliated with HigherEdOrg explained the challenges experienced by university students in Haiti and the related implications on their future career outcomes. All participants discussed Haiti in the context of its economic realities. With respect to higher education matriculation, the lack of a financial aid system was a significant barrier for most university students, given the high rates of poverty in the country (CIA,
Research participants also discussed the career service strategies of HigherEdOrg: they found the comprehensive support useful to their career preparation and career trajectory. HigherEdOrg’s multi-pronged approach to career guidance and training is consistent with research on the topic (Watts & Fretwell,
As is consistent with empirical research studies, this study has also limitations (Maxwell,
Implications from this study re-imagine higher education and career development in country contexts like Haiti. The findings highlighted the
This research also reveals implications for the provision of career guidance in higher education institutions that occurs
An implication for theory addresses the eight benchmarks embedded in Holman’s (
Finally, a significant implication of this research is the need for partnerships between the higher education sector, the higher education-centred NGOs and the Ministry of Education. Such a coalition would reveal the perceptions of corruption in the local workforce, as highlighted by the study participants, and will provide opportunities for coordinated interventions. Additionally, it will diminish the duplication of efforts in response to local, country-wide and global events; for instance, the increased unavailability of jobs in developing countries as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. The extent of the economic fallout that will occur in Haiti as a result, or in a similar context, is still unknown.
Recommendations for practice are challenging for countries that are resource constrained like Haiti. However, they are worth mentioning and include the adoption of career guidance in higher education institutions, and as a function of the services provided to university students by the many NGOs that exist in Haiti. Although there are contextual data on the range of vocational and technical education and training that exist in Haiti, there does not seem to be a clear understanding of any career counselling specific to university students that exists, or any empirical research that has examined this topic previously. Recommendations for policy include the Ministry of Education providing basic guidelines or standards for universities and stakeholders to follow as a way for career development to emerge as a service provided to students in the Haitian higher education system. Recommendations for future research include an environmental scan of the career guidance that is offered to university students in Haiti. This scan will reveal what is and what is not occurring in the higher education environment, and will inform the design of targeted and relevant research projects. Additionally, more stakeholders should be interviewed to determine a holistic and multi-pronged strategy between key stakeholders to address the career counselling and development challenges experienced by university students and graduates in Haiti.
Recommendations for theory include an expansion of the
Overall, emerging adults in Haiti experience considerable challenges in both their higher education experiences and career development. However, the findings of this study revealed that there is a pipeline between higher education attainment and positive career outcomes for those university students affiliated with HigherEdOrg. More specifically, the academic advisories and support offered by the organisation, coupled with career counselling and guidance, resulted in an 80% graduation rate as compared to 40% for the entire country population, which in turn led to a 90% employment rate for HigherEdOrg alumni, as compared to 50% for the rest of the country. These statistics are relevant. Although career counselling and guidance might be customary for university students in many countries, it is unique to Haiti and not readily accessible to the emerging adults there. Thus, HigherEdOrg serves as an innovative presence in Haiti, and a model for other countries in similar contexts.
The author declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
L.M.V. is the sole author of this research article.
No funding was provided for the development of this manuscript. Funding was provided by Michigan State University for data collection.
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, L.M.V., upon reasonable request.
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the institution or funder.